The Church of Rome 3
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VI. Dissenting Viewpoints
A. This competition between church and state for primacy in medieval society fostered protest from many people who objected to the church’s quest for power and influence.
B. Monasticism offered a different vision for the church.
i. Monastic communities emphasized leaving behind one’s family, property, and worldly values in order to focus exclusively on God.
ii. Eventually, many monastic orders were given so much wealth that their focus on simple living was exchanged for luxury, sloth and laxity.
iii. New voices would call for reform and for a return to the monastic ideals of poverty, moral rigor, and spiritual discipline.
iv. However, most monastic reform focused more on behavior than belief, offering moral answers to doctrinal problems.
C. The Cathari, or Albigensians, were one of the first groups to protest against the church’s doctrine.
Catharism was a Christian dualist or Gnostic movement between the 12th and 14th centuries which thrived in Southern Europe, particularly in northern Italy and southern France.
i. They rejected the use of sacraments.
ii. They embraced a dualistic doctrine that led to radical asceticism.
iii. Due to its heretical views, this movement was eventually stamped out.
D. The followers of Peter Waldo, or Waldensians, also became a widespread movement.
The founding of the Waldensians is attributed to Peter Waldo, a wealthy merchant who gave away his property around 1173,[1][2] preaching apostolic poverty as the way to perfection.
Waldensian teachings came into conflict with the Catholic Church and by 1215 the Waldensians were declared heretical, not because they preached apostolic poverty, which the Franciscans also preached, but because they were not willing to recognize the prerogatives of local bishops over the content of their preaching, nor to recognize standards about who was fit to preach.
i. This group emphasized study of the Bible, personal discipleship, and a simple lifestyle.
ii. Though not heretical, the Waldensians were seen as dangerous to the power and authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
iii. In the sixteenth century, the remaining communities of Waldensians eventually joined the Reformation churches.
I. Understanding the Crusades
A. The Crusades represent a radical break with previous Christian history.
i. In medieval Europe, Christians typically went to war for secular reasons.
ii. Although some Christians might have perceived military service as a means of serving God, they fought for the state, not the church.
iii. With the coming of the crusading ideal, Christians accepted the idea of using force to advance the church and the cause of Christ.
B. The Crusades had a deeply religious and apocalyptic character.
i. The motivation for Crusades is often described in terms of political ambition, economic greed, pursuit of absolution from purgatory, violent warmongering, and a desire to avenge the loss of Christian territory.
ii. While many of these elements were factors in the crusading movement, genuine piety also played a significant role.
C. Historian Jay Rubenstein argues that at the deepest level the Crusades were driven by an apocalyptic expectation. i. It was widely taught that the events surrounding the end of time would take place in Jerusalem.
ii. By rallying around the cause of liberating Jerusalem, Christians could perhaps hasten the coming of Christ.
iii. The crusading ideal emerged around 1100, a millennium after the time of Christ.
iv. The medieval appreciation for Jesus’ birth as the central point in history contributed to the anticipation of His triumphant return at the end of the millennium.
D. Many supported the Crusades out of a desire to keep Jerusalem available to Christian pilgrims.
i. For centuries, the practice of religious pilgrimage had been a common way of expressing piety.
ii. One way to grow in personal holiness was through visiting holy sites.
iii. Jerusalem was a particularly special destination for pilgrims due to its significance in ancient Israel; the ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus; and the birth of the Christian church.
1. Since the time of Constantine, Christians had regularly made pilgrimages to Jerusalem, even after Muslims captured the city in the seventh century.
2. In the eleventh century, reports began to circulate in Europe that the 6—The Crusades 31 Muslims were hindering Christian pilgrims in their efforts to visit the holy sites.
iv. There was a growing eschatological conviction that Christians ought to go and win back the Holy City for Christ.
E. In 1095, these growing factors released a burst of energy and passion directed toward the recapture of Jerusalem.
i. The Byzantine emperor had written to the pope requesting military aid against the Turks.
ii. At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II responded by calling Western Europe to action against the Turkish threat in the Holy Land.
iii. Thousands of Christians from all walks of life responded by embarking upon a military expedition to Palestine, later called a “crusade,” meaning “way of the Cross.”
VII. The Aftermath of the Crusades
A. The crusades stand out as a curious and tragic development in the history of Western Christendom.
i. They represent an unprecedented level of collaboration among the many monarchs who united in a common cause.
ii. The ill-founded belief that Christians had the right to advance the cause of Christ by the sword led to bitter and bloody consequences.
B. The violent legacy of the Crusades has placed a stain upon Christianity in the eyes of many, especially Muslims.
C. The Crusades both illustrate and contribute to problems and challenges that face the church today.
II. Pope Innocent III
A. He reigned as pope from 1198 to 1216 and referred to himself as “the Vicar of God.”
B. At this time, the papacy was at the peak of its influence, and he was considered by the church to be “the father of princes and kings and the ruler of the world” on Christ’s behalf. 7—Innocent III 37
i. He insisted that, as pope, he was infallible in his leadership of the church.
ii. He was actively involved in Western Europe’s political affairs.
C. During his years in office, Innocent III demonstrated his aptitude for international politics and his zeal for the power of the church
IV. The Fourth Lateran Council and Transubstantiation
A. Innocent III called a church council that met at the Lateran Palace in Rome in 1215. 38 Church History II
B. The Fourth Lateran Council addressed key doctrinal topics and issues of reform.
C. One significant result of the council was the church’s act of defining and adopting the doctrine of transubstantiation, the belief that the communion elements are changed into the actual body and blood of Jesus.
D. The question of transubstantiation had been a topic of debate in the church for centuries.
i. There was uncertainty over what happened to the bread and wine in the moment when the priest pronounces the words “This is my body.”
ii. In the ninth century, Ratramnus and Radbertus had debated the significance of the communion elements.
1. Ratramnus argued that the bread and wine were the body and blood of Jesus in a spiritual sense.
2. Radbertus argued that the bread and wine became the literal, physical body and blood of Jesus.
3. Ratramnus rooted his view in the writings of St. Augustine, but Augustine’s teachings on the Eucharist did not settle the question.
iii. During much of the Middle Ages, therefore, both Ratramnus’ and Radbertus’ views were accepted within the church.
E. However, Innocent III wanted the church to adopt a final and official position on this issue.
i. The council’s formulation of the doctrine of transubstantiation was rooted heavily in Aristotelian philosophy.
1. Aristotle distinguished between an object’s outward or material appearance and its inner form or substance.
2. In the emerging Roman Catholic consensus, the outward appearance of the bread and wine remained unchanged, while the inner substance of the bread and wine was changed, or transubstantiated, into Christ’s body and blood.
3. Therefore, when the priest announces “This is my body, broken for you,” Jesus is physically present.
ii. This doctrine, adopted in 1215, marks a key moment in the development of the Roman Catholic Church.
1. Catholic apologists argue that Roman Catholicism began in the book of Acts.
2. A case can be made, however, that Roman Catholicism did not emerge in its final state until the Council of Trent in the mid-sixteenth century.
3. Many of the doctrines that are considered essential to Roman Catholic belief were adopted by Catholic leaders in response to Protestant doctrinal statements.
4. In this sense, Roman Catholicism is a younger movement than Protestantism is.
I. The Nature of Papal Authority
A. Although many popes had made bold claims about the extent of their authority, it remained to be seen how these claims would play out in the life of the church.
B. Pope Boniface VIII represents the high water mark of papal claims.
i. Boniface VIII was pope from 1284 until 1303.
ii. Although he did not wield the same degree of influence as Innocent III, he strongly articulated ideas of papal authority that had been developing for centuries.
iii. In 1302, after a series of conflicts with Philip IV of France, Boniface issued the papal bull known as Unam Sanctam.
1. He claimed that, as the head of the church, he was to govern all earthly affairs on behalf of Christ.
2. Kings and rulers, then, were to submit to the Pope’s authority in all matters.
iv. In 1303, Philip travelled to Italy with an armed force, captured Boniface, and forcibly removed him from office. v. Though Boniface had dramatically asserted papal authority, he did not have the ability to back up his claims. 54 Church History II C. At this time, experts in canon law were trying to define the exact character of papal power. i. Some advocated absolute papal monarchy, saying that only God can criticize, judge, or remove a pope. ii. Others advocated limited papal monarchy, which envisioned a papacy that was held accountable to other institutions. iii. Canon lawyers also thought about what should be done when there were multiple claimants for the papal throne, and whether a pope could be removed if he abused his powers or espoused heresy. II. The Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism A. In 1309 Pope Clement V, who was French by birth, decided to relocate the papal court to Avignon, France. i. Because a pope had never lived outside of Rome, this was a disconcerting development for many Christians. ii. The Pope’s seventy-year absence from Rome came to be known as the “Babylonian captivity of the church.” iii. During this time, there were many complaints of papal corruption and fears that the French were exercising a disproportionate influence on ecclesiastical affairs. B. In 1377, due to the constant appeals to return to Rome, Pope Gregory XI moved the papal court from Avignon back to Rome. C. Upon Gregory’s death the next year, the French and Italian cardinals were divided on their choice of a new pope. i. When an Italian was elected, the French cardinals withdrew and elected a Frenchman as their own pope. ii. The resulting condition was one church with two popes. D. In the resulting schism, each nation had to decide whether it would side with the Italian pope in Rome or the French pope in Avignon. i. Because each pope excommunicated those who opposed him, virtually all of Europe found itself excommunicated by one pope or the other. ii. This situation created a sense of uneasiness about whether one was in fellowship with the true pope and partaking of the true sacraments, or whether one was actually part of a false church. E. In 1409, after thirty years of schism, the Council of Pisa resolved that both rival popes should resign so that a new pope could preside over a united church. i. This approach is described as via consessionis, “the way of resignation.” ii. However, neither of the rival popes was willing to step down. iii. As a result, the church now had three popes. III.The Council of Constance and the Rise of Conciliarism A. Eventually, the church resolved this crisis when it met at the Council of Constance from 1414 until 1418. 10—Popes & Councils 55 i. The approach taken at Constance is described as the via conciliae, “the way of the council,” or conciliarism. ii. Among other things, the council determined that the institution of the papacy was not adequate in itself to serve as the church’s ultimate authority. B. The decree Haec Sancta, also known as Sacrosancta, declared that ecumenical councils were to be supreme in the life of the church. i. The authority of the council was derived, not from the pope, but directly from Christ. ii. Consequently, the pope’s authority came, not directly from Christ, but from the council. C. The decree Frequens mandated that a council was to be called frequently by the pope to help with the governance of the church. D. As a movement, conciliarism ushered in a radical new paradigm that might have profoundly changed the character of the Catholic Church. E. The council, evoking its authority over the papacy, deposed all three rival popes and elected a new pope. i. Remarkably, this strategy succeeded. ii. Europe, weary of the threefold schism, accepted this new pope. iii. Eventually, realizing their loss of support, the rival popes withdrew their claims. IV. The Council of Basel and the Decline of Conciliarism A. The Council of Basel convened in Basel, Switzerland, from 1431 until 1449. i. In obedience to Frequens, Pope Martin V called a council to convene in 1431. ii. As the council began to assert its rights more radically, hostilities began to develop between the council and Martin’s successor, Pope Eugene IV. iii. In an effort to exercise more control over the council, Eugene ordered the council to reconvene in Italy. iv. Some council members obeyed the papal order and reconvened as the Council of Florence. v. Those who remained at Basel became increasingly radical, eventually attempting to depose Eugene and appoint a new pope. B. Tired of seeing popes deposed and replaced at whim, Catholics began to grow disillusioned with the Council of Basel and with conciliarism as a movement. i. Though the Council of Basel continued to meet until 1449, it became increasingly irrelevant to the life of the church. ii. This mis-step by the council gave the pope an opportunity to reassert his power. C. The Council of Florence, under the direction of Eugene IV, exercised considerable influence. i. The council entered into negotiations with Constantinople to reunite the Eastern and Western churches, an attempt which nearly succeeded. 56 Church History II ii. The council officially declared that the church had seven sacraments. 1. The belief in seven sacraments was not new, as it extended to the time of Peter Lombard and earlier. 2. However, this belief had not been universally accepted by the church until the Council of Florence endorsed it. D. As conciliarism lost its momentum, the papacy made it clear that church councils would remain subject to the pope in the future. i. Councils could only be called by the pope. ii. Councils would be under the pope’s direct jurisdiction. iii. The decrees of councils would only be binding if they received the pope’s approval. E. The conciliar movement, an attempt to define and limit the pope’s authority, ended with the pope establishing himself more firmly as an absolute monarch over ecclesiastical affairs.
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries represented an era of significant change in the Medieval world. In the East, these centuries witnessed the final decline and collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Meanwhile, institutions in the West continued to develop and flourish. While European monarchs labored to build up their power and prestige, the pope continued to increase his authority over the church. At the same time, an influx of new ideas had ushered in a season of considerable academic achievement. As Europe began to establish its first universities, talented Scholastics appeared who dramatically shaped the trajectory of Christian thought
I. The Path of Mysticism A. In the late Middle Ages, theology was a significant pathway to God, but it was not the only pathway. i. Theological study was not an easy path, and it was not accessible to all Christians. ii. Many sought to connect with God through a direct, mystical experience that transcended the mind. B. Interestingly, the great scholar Thomas Aquinas reported a mystical encounter with God near the end of his life. i. He unexpectedly had a mystical experience while he was celebrating mass. ii. As a result of this experience, he stopped writing and declared that all his previous writings seemed to be as worthless as straw. C. Mysticism pursued an interaction with God that was rooted in the center of a person’s being. i. A person’s five senses were believed to be peripheral, enabling a person to interact with the physical world. ii. On a deeper level, the intellect enabled a person to reason, will, and interact with the world of ideas, such as theology and philosophy. iii. Deeper still, the core of a person’s soul was capable of connecting directly with God, unmediated by the senses or intellect. iv. Mystics sought to cultivate this type of experience through a careful emptying of one’s self. D. Pseudo-Dionysius i. Dionysius the Aeropagite is mentioned in Acts 17:34 as one of the apostle Paul’s converts during his time in Athens. ii. Around the sixth century, a collection of writings appeared that was attributed to Dionysius. 12—Mysticism & the Renaissance 65 iii. Though later proved to be a forgery, this collection of documents wielded tremendous influence in the Middle Ages because it was believed to have come from a friend of Paul. iv. These writings outlined a process of gradually purging away bodily sensations and mental faculties in order to allow the divine light to illumine the Christian’s soul like a spark. E. Meister Eckhart i. Meister Eckhart was a German mystic who lived in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. ii. Eckhart’s writings expressed his desire to become lost in the divine. iii. Eckhart implied that he, as a human, was part of a larger divine reality. iv. This view illustrates a Pantheistic tendency that exists in some forms of mysticism. v. While mysticism made some important contributions to medieval piety, most theologians regarded this movement with considerable caution. II. The Renaissance A. The Renaissance movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries opened new educational opportunities and reawakened European interest in the classical era. B. Renaissance thinkers desired to recover ancient thought and culture, which they believed had been lost or distorted by the Middle Ages. i. One of the recurring slogans of the Renaissance was ad fontes, which means “to the fountains” or “to the sources.” ii. The western culture of the classical period was seen as being superior to that of the medieval period. iii. In the minds of Renaissance scholars, the mechanical and wooden Latin of Thomas Aquinas compared unfavorably to the beautiful and eloquent Latin writing of Cicero. C. The revival of interest in ancient Latin works also stimulated interest in other ancient languages such as Greek and Hebrew. i. Despite the growing interest in ancient Greek culture, knowledge of the Greek language had nearly been lost in the West. ii. However, when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453, many Greek scholars fled to Western Europe with ancient Greek texts. iii. Equipped with a newfound knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, Western scholars began to examine Scripture in the original languages for the first time in centuries. D. The invention of the movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid 1400s significantly aided the rapid distribution of Bibles and other ancient texts. i. Scholars, clergy, and laypeople now had access to unprecedented educational opportunities. ii. After reading ancient writings, many people became aware of differences between the ancient church and the Roman Catholic Church of their day. 66 Church History II E. Certain scholars, equipped with this new knowledge, brought clarity and scrutiny to some of the church’s claims. i. After studying the Donation of Constantine, Lorenzo Valla proved that it could not have been written during Constantine’s lifetime and was, therefore, a forgery. ii. This discovery, in effect, undermined the pope’s claim to political authority over Western Europe. iii. Desiderius Erasmus provided a new Latin translation of the Bible, providing clarity in certain places where the Vulgate’s wording had been vague or misleading. iv. Because the language of this translation was more vivid and more accessible, many people who read it gained a greater understanding of Scripture. F. Although the Renaissance sometimes fostered an unnecessarily negative view of the medieval past, it nevertheless helped to lay the foundations for a Christian rediscovery of God’s Word. G. For the first time in centuries, Christians were equipped to see past centuries of traditions and assumptions in order to access Scripture and the earliest Christian writings.
As the church continued to consolidate its power and define its beliefs, it did not always act and speak with one voice. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, certain churchmen began to speak out against the corrupt practices and unbiblical doctrines that had become increasingly common within the medieval church. Emphasizing the authority of the Bible and a life of genuine piety, these leaders quickly gained a large following among the spiritually hungry common people. Though these reform movements were fiercely opposed by the church, they helped to lay the groundwork for profound spiritual changes that would come in later centuries.I. The Disputed Concept of Forerunners A. The idea that there were medieval forerunners to the Protestant Reformation is a controversial one. i. There were not any theologians in the Middle Ages who completely shared the Reformation point of view. ii. Although many medieval leaders called for reform within the church, it is not certain that they all would have supported the Reformation if it had come during their lifetimes. iii. To speak of forerunners to a movement can sometimes imply that the movement was inevitable from a human point of view, which is a very bold claim. iv. Is it truthful, then, to associate these men with events that took place long after their deaths? B. While this may be a controversial concept, it is nevertheless a useful one. i. As Protestants, we do not claim that the church died out during the Middle Ages and had to be resurrected at the time of the Reformation. ii. Instead, Christ has always fulfilled His promise that He would build His church and that the gates of hell would not prevail against it. iii. Though the gospel was at times misunderstood and clouded over, it was not stamped out during the Middle Ages. 70 Church History II iv. Throughout the Middle Ages, there were many staunch defenders of a biblical, Augustinian, grace-oriented understanding of the gospel. v. Among these defenders of the gospel, several spoke out prophetically as critics of the growing problems within the church. II. John Wycliffe A. John Wycliffe was born in the 1320s and lived until 1384. B. He was educated at Oxford and was recognized for his intellectual talents. C. Eventually, he became a respected lecturer at Oxford. D. As he continued his studies of the Bible, Wycliffe became increasingly critical of certain tendencies within the church. i. Although the pope claimed to be the head of the church on earth, Wycliffe openly taught that Christ was the only head of the church. ii. Wycliffe argued against the pope’s claim to political authority, a stance which pleased the king of England. iii. Against the notion that the church encompassed all of Christendom, Wycliffe emphasized the invisible church as the elect of God. E. As Wycliffe’s views became known, church leaders became increasingly critical of Wycliffe, which, in turn prompted Wycliffe to become even more radical in his views. i. Wycliffe eventually equated the pope with the spirit of antichrist. 1. In response, the church condemned Wycliffe’s teachings. 2. Interestingly, Wycliffe’s colleagues at Oxford defended his theology as orthodox. ii. Wycliffe critiqued the perpetually binding monastic vow and the practice of clerical celibacy, which he claimed were not biblically warranted and were out of step with the freedom and mercies of Christ. iii. Wycliffe rejected the necessity of oral confession to a priest, thereby denying the sacrament of penance. F. Wycliffe eventually went so far as to challenge the doctrine of transubstantiation. i. This defied the ruling of the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. ii. This defied the church’s belief that Christ was physically present in the bread and wine during the Lord’s Supper. iii. This defied the medieval principle ex opera operato, the belief that the sacraments were efficacious by nature of the mere fact that they had been carried out. iv. Wycliffe expressed the need for a translation of the Bible in English so that the people could understand it, and he began producing his own English translation of Scripture. v. Wycliffe died in prison in 1384, and his remains were later burned and scattered. vi. Wycliffe attracted thousands of followers, who became known as Lollards and who carried his teachings throughout England and the rest of Europe. 13—Forerunners of the Reformation 71 III.John Huss A. John Huss was born in Bohemia around 1369 and lived until 1415. B. As a priest, Huss had been influenced by Wycliffe’s writings and agreed with Wycliffe’s critiques of the church. C. In the early 1400s, Huss began to preach publicly against abuses and immorality within the church. D. Like Wycliffe, Huss’ critiques of transubstantiation and the papacy both drew many followers and aroused the anger of church leaders. E. Huss was summoned to appear before the Council of Constance in order for his views to be examined. i. When he and his supporters hesitated, the council promised him safe conduct to and from Constance. ii. After Huss arrived at Constance, he was put on trial and condemned of heresy. iii. In spite of the promise of safe passage, Huss was burned at the stake. IV. Johann von Staupitz A. Johann von Staupitz was an Augustinian monk who had been a teacher and superior to Martin Luther. B. Although Staupitz never left the Roman Catholic Church, his life and thought marked a break with Roman Catholic theology. i. In a treatise on predestination, Staupitz wrote that grace makes sinners acceptable to God. ii. In the thinking of Staupitz, grace is needed to alert sinners to the danger of their spiritual condition and draw them to God. iii. This belief marks a significant step toward a biblical, Augustinian understanding of grace. C. Staupitz’s perspective on grace helped shape Luther’s understanding of grace. D. Staupitz is a reminder that, though the church had become corrupt and mistaken in many ways, there were many defenders of Augustinian teaching who helped to prepare the way for the rediscovery of biblical truth.