Hebronites

Scott Wilson

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Hebron

Zăchʹʹa̭-rīʹas (remembered by Jehovah). Greek form of Zachariah. (1) The name is borne by many priests and laymen in the books of Esdras. (2) Father of John the Baptist and husband of Elizabeth. He was a priest of the course of Abia, or Abijah, 1 Chr. 24:10, and probably lived at Hebron, Luke 1:5–25, 57–80. (3) Son of Barachias, who was slain between the temple and the altar, Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51.1

1 Boyd, J. P. (1979). Zăchʹʹa̭-rīʹas

. In

Boyd’s bible dictionary. Holman Reference.

Dāʹvid (well-beloved). Youngest son of Jesse, 1 Sam. 16:8–12, born at Bethlehem. Anointed king by Samuel, 1 Sam. 16:13. Re-anointed at Hebron, 2 Sam. 2:4. United his kingdom and raised it to great strength and splendor. Died at the age of 70, B. c. 1015, after a reign of seven and a half years over Judah and thirty-three years over the entire kingdom of Israel. History told in 1 Sam. 16 to 1 Kgs. 2.

Dāʹvid, City of. [JERUSALEM.]1

1 Boyd, J. P. (1979). Dāʹvid

. In Boyd’s bible dictionary. Holman Reference.

Hăshʹʹa̯-bīʹah (regarded). (1) Two Levites, 1 Chr. 6:45; 9:14. (2) Leader of twelfth course, 1 Chr. 25:3, 19. (3) A Hebronite, 1 Chr. 26:30. (4) Other Levites, 1 Chr. 27:17; 2 Chr. 35:9; Ez. 8:19, 24; Neh. 3:17; 10:11; 11:15, 22; 12:24.1

1 Boyd, J. P. (1979). Hăshʹʹa̯-bīʹah

. In

Boyd’s bible dictionary. Holman Reference.

Jḗ-rīʹah (founded). A chief of the house of Hebron, 1 Chr. 23:19; 24:23.1

1 Boyd, J. P. (1979). Jḗ-rīʹah

. In

Boyd’s bible dictionary

. Holman Reference.

The Family of David

1–3 3 These are the sons that David had while he lived at Hebron:

His firstborn was Amnon by Ahinoam of Jezreel;

second, Daniel by Abigail of Carmel;

third, Absalom born of Maacah, daughter of Talmai king of Geshur;

fourth, Adonijah born of Haggith;

fifth, Shephatiah born of Abital;

sixth, Ithream born of his wife Eglah.1

1 Peterson, E. H. (2005). The Message: the Bible in contemporary language (1 Ch 3:1–3). Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress.

10–12 Then David joined his ancestors. He was buried in the City of David. David ruled Israel for forty years—seven years in Hebron and another thirty-three in Jerusalem. Solomon took over on the throne of his father David; he had a firm grip on the kingdom1

1 Peterson, E. H. (2005). The Message: the Bible in contemporary language (1 Ki 2:10–12). Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress.

Burying the dead was Always to be outside the city. It was written. With David and following kings were buried throughout Jerusalem. S.W.

David

Introduction

Israel’s greatest king, David, is esteemed in Scripture as a great ruler, warrior, poet and musician, and most of all, as a man after God’s own heart. Subsequent kings in Israel are compared, either favourably or unfavourably, with David. Most significantly, David is the prototype of the ideal coming king—the Messiah. God’s promise to David of a perpetual line (2 Sam. 7) becomes in the royal psalms and the prophets the expectation of an ideal king from David’s line. The NT sees in Jesus Christ, the son of David, the fulfilment of these hopes. (See Kingdom of God.)

The David narratives in Samuel

The rise of David

The drama and detail of the David story in 1 and 2 Samuel make it a literary masterpiece, one of the finest extended narratives of the ancient world. The twin themes which permeate the account of David’s rise are God’s favour and David’s sincere and passionate heart for God. When Samuel is directed to Jesse’s home to anoint the new king of Israel, it is the youngest and least significant of eight brothers who is chosen. Samuel is informed that while ‘man looks at the outward appearance, the Lord looks at the heart’ (1 Sam. 16:7, niv ). God’s gracious choice is confirmed by the sincerity of David’s heart.

David’s rise is counterbalanced by the decline of Saul, whose self-centred jealousy is in contrast to David’s trust and patient waiting on the Lord. From his anointing onwards, David’s star rises while Saul’s falls. David’s defeat of Goliath and his subsequent victories bring public acclaim, provoking jealousy and rage in Saul, who repeatedly attempts to kill David (1 Sam. 17–19). In contrast the fugitive David, though the rightful king, repeatedly refuses to harm the Lord’s anointed (2 Sam. 24:6). David’s patient waiting on the Lord receives its reward following Saul’s suicide after being wounded in battle (1 Sam. 31). Even here David demonstrates his respect for the office of king, first, by executing an Amalekite for his presumption in killing the Lord’s anointed (2 Sam. 1:1–16), and secondly, by composing a stirring lament in honour of the heroism of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:17–27).

Following the death of Saul, David is anointed king over Judah and reigns in Hebron for seven and a half years. War ensues between Judah and Israel, pitting David’s forces against those of Saul’s son Ishbosheth. After David’s forces prevail and Ishbosheth is assassinated by conspirators, the elders of Israel anoint David as king (2 Sam. 2–5). For thirty-three years David reigns over a united kingdom, giving him a reign of forty years in all. David’s rise to power is summed up in 2 Samuel 5:10; he was successful because ‘the Lord God of hosts was with him’.

The zenith of David’s power and the Davidic covenant

The account of David’s reign begins with four theologically significant events. 1. David’s conquest of the Jebusite stronghold of Jerusalem establishes a strong and neutral site for a capital over all Israel (2 Sam. 5:6–9). Jerusalem also provides a single central sanctuary for Israel’s corporate worship. 2. David brings the ark to Jerusalem, and thereby establishes the city as the locus of the nation’s religious as well as political life (2 Sam. 6). 3. David’s victories over his enemies, especially the Philistines, consolidate his power and provide the ‘rest’ which forms the context for the Davidic covenant (2 Sam. 6, 8). 4. The Davidic covenant itself (2 Sam. 7) establishes David’s seed and dynasty in perpetuity.

The oracle of Nathan in which the Davidic covenant is set provides the primary foundation upon which the messianic idea arose in Israel. The account in 2 Samuel 7 finds its poetic counterpart in Psalm 89. The context is David’s consolidation of power, the ‘rest from all his enemies around him’ (2 Sam. 7:1), and his desire to build a temple for the Lord. In a play on words, Nathan informs David he will not build a ‘house’ (*i.e. a temple) for the Lord; rather the Lord will build a ‘house’ (*i.e. a dynasty) for David. David is promised the perpetuity of his seed, God’s eternal loving-kindness (ḥeseḏ) (despite the failures of David’s son[s] and the discipline administered by the Lord), a unique father-son relationship between the Lord and David’s seed, and an eternal throne for David. Also in 2 Samuel 7 there is the promise that Solomon will build the temple (v. 13). This promise will be taken up by subsequent generations when the temple lies in ruins (as in Zechariah and the rabbinic writings), or when the current temple leadership is viewed as corrupt (as at Qumran, where the community becomes the ‘temple’). Finally, God promises peace and security for Israel in the land. This, in turn, implies a united kingdom and freedom from foreign domination. The promise of a place of rest and security for Israel following the Exodus (Deut. 3:20; 12:9–10; Josh. 1:15) is here expanded and applied to the Davidic dynasty. The Davidic promise thus becomes an extension and individualization of the Lord’s covenant relationship with the nation Israel.

David’s sin and subsequent decline

The highlight of David’s life (the Davidic covenant) is followed by his greatest fall. David’s sin with Bathsheba and the murder of her husband Uriah become a crucial turning point in the David story in 2 Samuel, inaugurating a period of devastating decline. The sin is attributed to both complacency and the abuse of power. It is David’s failure to go to war which results in his temptation, and his disregard for the law which results in adultery and murder. The king in Israel was not meant to be above the law, but to act as God’s faithful vice-regent, providing for the people a model of righteous adherence to the Torah. Disaster upon disaster follows in David’s life as a result: the death of Bathsheba’s child; the rape of Tamar by Amnon; the subsequent murder of Amnon by Absalom; Absalom’s conspiracy and seizure of the throne; David’s humiliating retreat from Jerusalem, and war with Absalom resulting in the young man’s death (2 Sam. 11–18). Throughout much of this David remains on the sidelines, powerless to stop the cycle of violence which his action has provoked.

Though tragic and devastating, David’s sin and restoration also serve to highlight God’s grace and the eternal loving-kindness promised to him. When David repents, he is forgiven and restored, and God’s promise is not revoked. David’s song of praise (2 Sam. 22) and the ‘last words of David’ (2 Sam. 23) serve as fitting summaries of the author’s assessment of David’s life. Throughout both passages the Lord is given credit for the successes and victories in David’s life. It is the Lord who ‘gives his king great victories; he shows unfailing kindness to his anointed, to David and his descendants for ever’ (2 Sam. 22:51).

The Davidic dynasty in Kings

The book of Kings demonstrates how each successive king after David dealt with his covenant responsibilities before the Lord. The overriding prophetic theme is that faithfulness to God and his covenant brings success, while unfaithfulness brings failure and judgment. The standard of righteousness is always David, and subsequent kings are judged according to whether each serves God ‘as David his father had done’ (1 Kgs. 11:6; 14:8; 15:3, 11; 2 Kgs. 14:3; 16:2; 18:3; 22:2).

The pattern is established by Solomon, who starts with the enormous potential provided by David’s legacy: a united and consolidated kingdom, a central place of worship for the construction of the new temple, great wisdom from the Lord, and great material prosperity. Yet Solomon’s heart is not fully devoted to the Lord ‘as the heart of David his father had been’, and in his old age his foreign wives turn his heart away (1 Kgs. 11:4–5). God’s mercy in postponing the division of the kingdom until Solomon’s death and in sparing a single tribe (Judah) for Solomon’s son is only ‘for the sake of David my servant’ (1 Kgs. 11:12–13).

‘For the sake of David’ is essentially the same as ‘for the sake of my promise’. It is God’s good name which is at stake. Even when the Davidic king falls into sin, God remains faithful to his promise (2 Sam. 7:15). When the kings of Aram (Syria) and Israel attempt to depose Ahaz of Judah and place the son of Tabeel on the throne, God intervenes, prophesying the destruction of Israel and Syria (Is. 7:1–25). It is surely not wicked King Ahaz whom God is protecting, but rather the heritage of the ‘house of David’ (Is. 7:2, 13), that is, the dynasty promised to David.

Ideal (Davidic) kingship and the royal psalms

The royal psalms express and elaborate the significance of David’s reign and of the Davidic covenant. There has been much discussion of the supposed distinction between ‘messianic’ and ‘royal’ psalms, the former supposedly prophetic, pointing to the coming ‘Messiah’, the latter supposedly historical and related to court occasions (births, marriages, accessions, etc. ) of the Davidic dynasty. Such a dichotomy, however, is unnecessary. In one sense all royal psalms are ‘messianic’ since they express the hope that the present king will fulfil the Davidic promise and restore the glories of the Davidic era.

The royal psalms affirm and elaborate the major components of the Davidic promise. God’s faithfulness to his ‘covenant’ (Pss. 89:4, 29; 132:12) guarantees the perpetuity of David’s line (Pss. 18:50; 45:6, 16–17; 132:10–12, 17). The Davidic king’s divine sonship is affirmed (Ps. 2:7), together with his enthronement on Mount Zion (Pss. 2:4–6; 110:2), his reign in justice and righteousness (Pss. 45:7; 72:1–4, 7), his victory over enemies through the Lord’s power (Pss. 2:1–9; 18:31–42; 20:1–9; 21:1–13; 45:5; 72:9–11; 110:1–2, 5–6) and material prosperity in the land (Ps. 72:16). New features introduced include worldwide dominion (Pss. 2:8; 72:8–11), a privileged position at the Lord’s right hand (Ps. 110:1), and a perpetual priesthood ‘according to the order of Melchizedek’ (Ps. 110:4, nrsv ). Though not of Levitical lineage, the Davidic king oversees the temple cult and serves as a priest in his own right.

Davidic messianism in the prophets

Pre-exilic prophecy

Some scholars assert that there are no true messianic prophecies before the Babylonian exile. Only after the Davidic dynasty had collapsed could the prophets predict that God would raise up a Davidic king to restore and renew the nation. Yet the Nathan oracle and the royal psalms suggest that hopes for Davidic restoration may be traced to the period of the monarchy, and even to expectations surrounding Solomon himself. It is in the 8th-century prophets, however, that these hopes reached their most sublime expression. Isaiah prophesies the coming of a new David, a ‘shoot from the root of Jesse’. Like David (1 Sam. 16:13) this king will be permanently endowed with the Spirit of the Lord, and so will have extraordinary wisdom and insight (Is. 11:2–3). With a word—the breath of his lips and the rod of his mouth—he will destroy the wicked (Is. 11:4). He will protect the poor and oppressed, establishing an eternal era of peace, justice and righteousness, and reigning on David’s throne for ever (Is. 9:1–7; 11:1–16). He is given extraordinary royal titles: Wonderful Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace (Is. 9:6).

Micah’s prophecies are similar to Isaiah’s. He predicts a Davidic ruler who will shepherd his people, adding that the king will come from Bethlehem, the birthplace of David (Mic. 5:2–4; cf. 1 Sam. 17:12). Since the current Davidic kings were associated with Jerusalem, Micah, like Isaiah, may here be foretelling the rejection of the present Davidic line in favour of a new ‘David’.

Prophecies of exile and restoration: Jeremiah and Ezekiel

With the collapse of the Davidic dynasty and the Babylonian exile, the expectation that the dynasty would be restored became a common (if not universal) feature within the more general hope for Israel’s renewal. While preaching the judgment and destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah asserts the Lord’s faithfulness to his covenant promises, including his promises made to David. Though the Davidic covenant is surpassed by the promise of a new covenant (Jer. 31:31–34), this is an expansion rather than an abrogation of earlier covenants, and God remains faithful to his promises to David and his seed for ever. As in Isaiah, an individual Messiah rather than a perpetual dynasty appears to be in view (but see Jer. 33:17). He is the righteous ‘shoot’ of David who will reign as king wisely and will establish justice and righteousness in the land (Jer. 23:5–6; cf. 33:14–26).

Ezekiel declares that following the exile the Lord will regather and restore his people (Ezek. 34–37). They will be sprinkled clean and given a new heart and a new spirit. They will live in peace and prosperity as a united nation (Ezek. 36:24–38). The Lord will dwell with them as their God, and they will be his people. He will set over them one king and one shepherd, ‘my servant David’, who will feed them and be their prince for ever (Ezek. 34:22–24; 37:24–28). Ezekiel here brings together elements of the Davidic and Sinai covenants. The ‘I their God, they my people’ formula of the Sinai traditions becomes ‘I, the Lord, will be their God, and my servant David will be prince among them’ (Ezek. 34:24).

It is evident from these texts that the details of the Davidic hope vary from prophet to prophet. In some texts an ideal king who reigns for ever in righteousness is envisaged (Is. 9:7); in others, a perpetual line or dynasty appears to be in view (Jer. 33:17–22; Ezek. 45:8–9; 46:16–18). In some texts the Messiah is portrayed as a new ‘David’ (or even a David redivivus?), a shoot from Jesse (Is. 11:1; cf. Ezek. 34:23–24; 37:24–25; Jer. 30:9–10; Hos. 3:5); in others he is a Davidic descendant, a shoot from David (Jer. 23:5–6; Zech. 6:12). In some texts he seems to be merely human. Elsewhere extraordinary royal titles (Is. 9:6) suggest pre-existence and divine status. Despite these variations, the predominant hope remains essentially the same: a restoration of the glories of the Davidic era, when the king after God’s heart served not as a despot but as the Lord’s vice-regent, establishing his justice and righteousness.

Post-exilic prophecy

The return of the exiles under the decree of Cyrus and the subsequent appointment of Zerubbabel, Davidic heir and grandson of Jehoiachin, as governor of Judah, raised hopes among some that God was about to fulfil his covenant promises to David. Both Haggai and Zechariah recall the promise that David’s son will build a house for the Lord, to embolden Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest to return to the task of temple building. Zechariah’s prophecies have strong messianic overtones. In the account of the investiture and crowning of Joshua the high priest, the prophet speaks of one called ‘Shoot’ or ‘Branch’ who will rebuild the temple (Zech. 6:12–13; cf. Jer. 23:5–6). Some scholars consider this figure to be Joshua himself; others, Zerubbabel and Joshua together; still others, a future messianic figure who will combine the offices of king and priest (see Ps. 110:4). In any case, the interaction between the royal and priestly messianic offices found here will play a prominent role in Second Temple Judaism (where two messiahs, royal and priestly, sometimes appear) and in the Christology of the early church (where Jesus Christ assumes both offices). Though Zerubbabel completes the second temple (Zech. 4:9), he and Joshua serve as types for the longed-for deliverer who will unite the royal and priestly offices and will build the true temple of God.

David and his dynasty in Chronicles

The Davidic legacy, positively assessed in Samuel and Kings, is idealized even further in Chronicles. In the context of disillusionment and the national identity crisis following the Babylonian exile, the Chronicler writes to affirm the central components of Israel’s national existence. He emphasizes God’s choice of David, Jerusalem, the Levitical priesthood and the centrality of the temple for Israel’s life and worship. While acknowledging the disastrous consequences which resulted when the Davidic kings failed in their duty towards God, he insists that God remains faithful to his promises to establish David’s seed for ever.

In line with this emphasis, Chronicles presents an idealized portrait of David, emphasizing his religious affections and his preparations for the building of the temple. The account of his sin with Bathsheba is omitted and the story of his decline greatly reduced. David the great king and man after God’s heart becomes the solid foundation upon which the Davidic dynasty is built, guaranteeing its perpetuity and the perpetuity of Israel’s national existence. In line with this Davidic emphasis, Chronicles follows only the Davidic line in Judah in the south, omitting the accounts from Kings of the non-Davidic kings of the north. Only in Judah is a legitimate, God-ordained king on the throne.

The psalms of David and Israel’s corporate worship

While David’s idealized kingship left the most enduring mark on Israel’s religious life, his musical talents and ordering of worship also had a profound impact. David’s name appears in the superscripts of almost half the psalms. Fourteen refer to incidents in David’s life.

According to Chronicles, David also had a leading role in Israel’s corporate worship. He made musical instruments used in temple worship (2 Chr. 7:6) and developed the order of worship (2 Chr. 8:14). David’s prescriptions for worship are followed in the revivals of both Hezekiah and Josiah (2 Chr. 29:25–30; 35:4, 15). When the exiles return to build Jerusalem and the temple they follow the order of worship prescribed by ‘David, the man of God’ (Neh. 12:24, 36, 45–46; Ezra 3:10).

David and Davidic messianism in Second Temple Judaism

David in Second Temple Judaism

The idealization of David found in the former prophets and in Chronicles continues in Second Temple Judaism. Especially prominent are David’s roles as warrior, psalmist and faithful servant of God. In his ‘praise of our ancestors’ section, Jesus ben Sirach (*c. 180 bc) extols David for his great valour and complete reliance on God. As a young shepherd David ‘played with lions as though they were young goats and with bears as though they were lambs’ (Ecclus. 47:3, nrsv ). By slaying Goliath he took away the people’s disgrace (Ecclus. 47:4, nrsv ). Yet ‘in all that he did he gave thanks to the Holy One … proclaiming his glory; he sang praise with all his heart and he loved his Maker’ (Ecclus. 47:8, nrsv ). As in Chronicles David is extolled for his musical talents in arranging the music for the Temple and for Israel’s festivals (Ecclus. 47:9–10, nrsv ). David’s sin with Bathsheba is mentioned only in the context of God’s forgiveness: ‘The Lord took away his sins, and exalted his horn for ever …’ (Ecclus. 47:11, nrsv ).

God’s victory over Goliath through ‘your servant David’ is repeatedly recalled to embolden God’s people to faith and perseverance (1 Macc. 4:30, nrsv ; War Scroll 11:1–2; Psalms Scroll 28; Ps. 151, lxx ). Also recalled are David’s musical talents. In the Psalms scroll from Qumran, it is said that David wrote 4,050 psalms through the prophecy that the Lord gave him (*Psalms Scroll 27).

Josephus provides a long and detailed account of David’s life which closely follows the biblical narrative (Josephus, Antiquities 6 §156–7 §394). Though he does not ignore the sin with Bathsheba, he presents it as an isolated incident in an otherwise exemplary life (7 §391). David had all the qualities of an ideal ruler: a man of excellent character and bravery, wise and prudent in his national affairs, and kind and righteous in his dealings with others (7 §390, 391).

The Damascus Rule also views the Bathsheba incident as an isolated event. The ‘deeds of David rose up [to God], except for the murder of Uriah, and God granted forgiveness’ (*Damascus Rule 5:2–3). While David is also said to have broken the law against a king’s multiplying wives (Deut. 17:17), this is excused because ‘David had not read the sealed book of the Law which was in the ark’ (*Damascus Rule 5:2).

Davidic messianism during the Second Temple period

Though David was honoured as a model of faith in Second Temple writings, expectations for a Messiah from his line ebbed and flowed with the changing political and social climate in Israel, and varied according to the diverse agendas of the sects (or ‘Judaisms’, Neusner et al. (eds. ), Judaisms and Their Messiahs) within Judaism. The resurgence of Davidic hopes at the time of Zerubbabel and the rebuilding of the temple inevitably diminished when Zerubbabel passed from the scene. During the Persian period the authority of the high priest increased as he took over administrative functions previously performed by the Davidic king. During the Maccabean period the Hasmonean priest-kings assumed both royal and priestly offices.

This is not to say that the covenant with David was forgotten, or that expectations for a Davidic king disappeared completely, but increasingly such hopes were set aside or postponed to an indefinite future.

This apparent decline in Davidic expectations appears to have been reversed in the late Second Temple period. Growing disenchantment with the corruption of the Hasmoneans and the subsequent subjugation of Israel by Rome renewed hopes for a great king from David’s line who would judge unrighteous rulers and expel foreigners from the land. This is most strongly expressed in the Psalms of Solomon, a 1st-century bc document probably composed in Pharisaic circles. In these psalms a group of Jewish pietists cry out against certain ‘sinners’ (the Hasmonean priest-kings) who have arrogantly usurped the Davidic throne and have defiled the temple of God (*Psalms of Solomon 1:6–8; 2:3–5; 8:8–13; 17:5–9, 19–22). In response God has sent a foreign conqueror (*Psalms of Solomon 17:8)—probably a reference to the Roman general Pompey (63 bc)—to defeat the city and lay waste the land (*Psalms of Solomon 2:3–8; 7:2; 8:14–22; 17:8–20). The psalmist beseeches the Lord to raise up the ‘son of David’ to rule over Israel (*Psalms of Solomon 17:21ff. ). The characteristics and functions of the Davidic king listed here are drawn from the OT Davidic promise tradition, and especially from Isaiah 11. He destroys the wicked, purges Jerusalem, restores the nation’s boundaries, gathers a holy people and faithfully and righteously shepherds them. He judges and rules in wisdom, understanding, strength and righteousness. At the same time the king is wholly subordinate to the Lord, ‘his king’, judging, leading and ruling according to God’s word and spirit (*Psalms of Solomon 17–18).

Similar expectations for a powerful and conquering messianic king appear in the Qumran scrolls, though here a second messiah, a priestly one, appears beside the Davidic one, at times taking precedence over him (see Rule of the Community ix 11; Messianic Rule ii 11–21; cf. Testament of Judah 21:1–3). Particularly in the cave 4 documents, the Davidic king plays a more prominent and executive role, acting as God’s agent to defeat Israel’s enemies. He is a warrior king after the model of Isaiah 11:1–5, who slays the ungodly with the breath of his lips, and whose mighty sceptre ravages the earth and rules the nations (*Florilegium i 10–13; Pesher on Isaiah fr. D 1–8; Patriarchal Blessing 1–5; cf. Rule of the Blessings v 24–26). Yet unlike the Hasmoneans, he never acts as a despot, but is wholly submissive to the will of God. His loins are girded with righteousness; he upholds the Law and learns at the feet of the priests: ‘As they teach him, so shall he judge’ (Pesher on Isaiah).

It should be noted that Judaism at the dawn of Christianity included a great diversity of eschatological expectations. In some texts, no messianic figure appears; God himself acts as Saviour. In others, an agent of deliverance appears, but is not a Davidic figure. In still others, imagery is drawn from the Davidic tradition but without reference to David’s seed. In general, however, there appears to have been a widespread (if not universal) expectation that God’s promise to David still stood, and that he would soon raise up the ‘son of David’ to deliver Israel and re-establish righteousness and justice in the land.

David and Davidic messianism in the NT

As in the literature of Judaism, David appears in the NT as a mighty king, inspired psalmist, man after God’s heart, and ancestor of the Messiah. For the NT writers Jesus is the messianic king and saviour from David’s line, the fulfilment of Israel’s hopes. Yet the prominence given to his Davidic descent varies from writer to writer. In some it is assumed but not emphasized. In others it becomes a crucial feature in the author’s presentation of Jesus.

Paul and pre-Pauline formulas

Paul assumes rather than defends Jesus’ Davidic descent and messianic office. The description ‘seed of David’ (kjv) appears in Romans 1:3–5 in what is probably a pre-Pauline hymn. The original meaning of the hymn has been debated, with some claiming that it represents an early two-stage Christology. Jesus, born as a son of David, became at his resurrection the son of God. It is more likely that the hymn was originally a two-stage proof of Jesus’ messiahship based on the Nathan oracle (2 Sam. 7:12, 14). Jesus’ messiahship is confirmed both by his legitimate Davidic ancestry (‘seed of David’) and by his vindication as God’s Son. Paul quotes the traditional hymn as an expression of the faith he holds in common with the church at Rome. For Paul the emphasis changes, however, with his introductory phrase, ‘concerning his Son’ (nrsv ), and the qualification ‘according to the flesh’. Though the title ‘seed of David’ confirms Jesus’ messianic status, it more importantly characterizes the humble incarnation of the pre-existent Son (Gal. 4:4; Rom. 8:3; Phil. 2:7). This relative lack of interest in Davidic messianism is characteristic of the Pauline tradition. Apart from the similar confessional formula in 2 Timothy 2:8, it is mentioned only incidentally, in Romans 15:12, where Isaiah 11:10 is cited to defend the Gentile mission.

The Gospel of Mark

In Mark, as in Paul, Jesus’ Davidic lineage is assumed rather than defended. In the account of the healing of blind Bartimaeus, the acclamation ‘son of David’ (Mark 10:47–48) prepares the reader for the pilgrim cry at Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem (Mark 11:10). The general reference to ‘the coming kingdom of our father David’ now carries for the reader specifically messianic significance and points to Jesus. Some commentators have interpreted Mark 12:35–37 as a denial of Jesus’ Davidic descent; Jesus cannot be the son of David since he is David’s Lord. This is unlikely in the light of Mark 10:47 and 11:10. Jesus’ question indicates that the title ‘son of David’, though an accurate description of the Messiah, is insufficient to describe his exalted status. Jesus is not a warrior king restoring the glories of the Davidic era through conquest. He is rather David’s Lord, who will bring in a new era of salvation history through suffering as the righteous servant.

David is also mentioned, though without messianic implications, in Mark 2:25–27 (pars.) where his action in eating the bread of the presence (1 Sam. 21:1–6) serves as proof that the needs of a human being may supersede certain commandments. Hence, ‘the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath’ (Mark 2:27).

The Gospel of Matthew

In the first Gospel the Davidic ancestry of the Messiah emerges as a crucial element in Matthew’s prophecy-fulfilment motif. In Matthew’s carefully structured genealogy, Abraham and David—the covenant receivers—stand together as central figures in salvation history (Matt. 1:1, 17). While in Mark only Bartimaeus addresses Jesus as ‘son of David’, in Matthew this becomes a common acclamation of those seeking help from Jesus (Matt. 9:27; 15:22; 20:30). When the people see Jesus’ miracles they wonder ‘Could this be the son of David?’ (Matt. 12:23) and at Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem the crowds now shout ‘Hosanna to the son of David!’ (Matt. 21:9, 15). As in later rabbinic thought the title ‘son of David’ is equivalent to that of ‘Messiah’, but provides a more explicit link to the Davidic roots of OT messianic expectation.

Luke-Acts

Luke’s emphasis on the continuity of salvation history, like Matthew’s on prophetic fulfilment, means that David and Davidic messianism occupy a prominent place in his two-volume work. In Stephen’s speech in Acts 7 David is said to have found favour (charis) with God and to have sought to build a house for him (Acts 7:46). In Pisidian Antioch Paul provides a summary of Israel’s history, which reaches its climax with David, the man after God’s heart who consistently did his will (Acts 13:22). ‘From this man’s seed God brought to Israel the Saviour, Jesus, as he promised’ (Acts 13:23, author’s translation). Jesus will fulfil the Davidic promise, reigning on David’s throne over the house of Jacob for ever (Luke 1:32–33). He is the Lord’s anointed, born in Bethlehem the ‘town of David’ of Joseph, a descendant of David (Luke 1:27; 2:4, 11, 26). Luke’s birth narrative applies the Davidic promise to the infant Jesus; the speeches in Acts explain its fulfilment (Acts 2:29–36; 13:22–23, 32–37; 15:16–18). Only Luke among the NT writers explicitly links the fulfilment of the Davidic promise with Jesus’ exaltation-enthronement at God’s right hand (Acts 2:33–36).

Also significant for Luke is David’s role as prophet of the Christ. While David’s prophetic gift is elsewhere implied with reference to his composition of psalms (Heb. 4:7; Rom. 4:6; 11:9), in Acts it is explicitly stated. In Psalm 2 the Lord spoke ‘by the Holy Spirit through the mouth of … David’ (Acts 4:25). David’s prophetic testimony is crucial in the apologetic argument of Peter’s Pentecost speech. Since David was a prophet (and since he neither rose from the dead nor ascended to heaven), Psalms 16 and 110 may be interpreted as predictions of the resurrection and ascension of the Christ (Acts 2:29–31). This emphasis on David as prophet reflects Luke’s belief in the continuity of salvation history. The whole of the OT revelation—‘all that the prophets have spoken … in all the Scriptures’—points forward to the coming of the Christ (Luke 24:25–27).

The Gospel of John

John’s emphasis on the divine Son, ‘the one who comes from above’, is reflected in his lack of interest in Jesus’ earthly origins. His Davidic descent is mentioned only in John 7:41–44, where Jesus’ messiahship is questioned by the Jews because of his (supposed) Galilean origin and non-Davidic lineage. While some suggest that John is ignorant of Jesus’ Davidic ancestry, the passage more probably reflects the Fourth Gospel’s characteristic irony. Two traditional messianic expectations are expressed by the Jews: first, the Messiah’s hiddenness (John 7:27; cf. 2 Esdras 7:28; 13:25–26; 2 Baruch 29:3), and second, his Davidic and Bethlehemite origin (John 7:42). For some, Jesus cannot be the Messiah since they know where he is from; for others, he cannot be the Messiah because he is apparently from Nazareth, not Bethlehem. But both are wrong. The first group does not know where he is from, since he is from heaven. The second does not know his earthly origins, since he was indeed born in Bethlehem and from the line of David. John ironically affirms that traditional expectations cannot adequately express the person of the Son.

Hebrews

The writer of the epistle to the Hebrews also accepts but goes beyond traditional messianic categories. Though he is aware of Jesus’ Judahite ancestry (Heb. 7:14), and hence of his Davidic lineage, he mentions it only to demonstrate that Jesus’ Melchizedekian priesthood is distinct from and superior to that of the Levitical line. Citations from the Nathan oracle (2 Sam. 7:14; Heb. 1:5) and the royal psalms (Pss. 2:7; 45:6–7; 110:1–2; Heb. 1:5, 8–9, 13; 5:5) show that as the Son Jesus is superior to angels, and the author’s repeated references to Psalm 110:4 confirm that Jesus’ Melchizedekian priesthood is superior to that of Aaron (Heb. 5:6; 6:20; 7:17, 21).

Revelation

David is mentioned three times in Revelation; two of the references are explicitly messianic. The author’s penchant for OT allusion and imagery provides a remarkable synthesis between Jewish messianic expectations and Christian reflection on their fulfilment in Jesus Christ. In Revelation 5:5–6 Jesus is both the ‘Lion of the tribe of Judah, the root of David’ and the Lamb who was slain. The allusion to the ‘lion’ refers to Jacob’s blessings in Genesis 49, where Judah is a ‘lion’s cub’ from whom the sceptre of rulership will not pass ‘until Shiloh comes’ (vv. 9–10, niv fn.). This first biblical prediction of the Davidic dynasty became an important messianic text in Second Temple Judaism (*Patriarchal Blessing 1–5). The reference to the ‘Root of David’ draws on the ‘shoot’ and ‘root’ imagery of Isaiah 11:1, 10. The Lamb, slain but standing in readiness, represents both sacrifice and victory. Jesus is the Messiah from David’s line who suffers and then conquers as the sacrificial lamb of God.

In Revelation 22:16 Jesus is again identified as ‘the Root and the Offspring of David’, but also as ‘the bright morning star’. The star imagery comes from the fourth oracle of Balaam (Num. 24:17), which was also interpreted messianically in Second Temple writings (*Testament of Levi 18:3; Testament of Judah 24:1–6; Rule of the Blessings v 27–29).

In short, Revelation brings together traditional Davidic messianic images to confirm that the Lamb, slain but now victorious, is indeed the consummation of God’s plan. The eternal destiny of all of creation comes to fulfilment in Jesus, who is not only the Davidic Messiah but also the Alpha and Omega, the Lord of all.